Disclosed herein are antifouling surfaces, methods of manufacture thereof and articles comprising the same.
Biofouling is the unwanted accumulation of organic and inorganic matter of biological origin on surfaces. For example, in a marine environment, biofouling is the result of marine organisms settling, attaching, and growing on submerged marine surfaces. The biofouling process is initiated within minutes of a surface being submerged in a marine environment. Biofouling generally begins by the absorption of dissolved organic materials, which result in the formation of a conditioning film. Once the conditioning film is deposited, bacteria (e.g. unicellular algae) colonize the surface within hours of submersion. The resulting biofilm produced from the colonization of the bacteria is referred to as microfouling or slime and can reach thicknesses on the order of 500 micrometers (“μm”).
Biofouling is estimated to cost the U.S. Navy alone over $1 billion per year by increasing the hydrodynamic drag of naval vessels. This in turn decreases the range, speed, and maneuverability of naval vessels and increases the fuel consumption by up to 30 to 40%. Biofouling thus impedes national defense in addition to causing economic hardship. Biofouling is also a major burden on commercial shipping, recreational craft, as well as civil structures, bridges, and power generating facilities.
Any substrate in regular contact with water is likely to become fouled. No surface has been found that is completely resistant to fouling. Due to the vast variety of marine organisms that form biofilms, the development of a single surface coating with fixed surface properties for preventing biofilm formation for all relevant marine organisms is a difficult if not impossible task.
Anti-fouling and fouling-release coatings are two main approaches currently used for combating biofilm formation. Anti-fouling coatings prevent or deter the settling of biofouling organisms on a surface by the use of leached biocides, typically cuprous oxide or tributyltin, into the water. The biocides are either tethered to the coated surface or are released from the surface into the surrounding environment. Use of these types of coatings has caused damage to the marine ecosystem, especially in shallow bays and harbors, where the biocides can accumulate. As such, the use of tributyltin has been banned in many parts of the world. These products are effective for only approximately 2 to 5 years.
Fouling release coatings present a hydrophobic, low surface energy, and resulting slippery surface that minimizes the adhesion of the biofouling organisms. The most commonly used and highly successful of these is a nontoxic silicone-based paint. The silicone-based coating requires several layers to make it effective, and therefore it can be quite costly. Effectiveness lasts up to 5 years at which time recoating may become necessary. These products are considered to be more environmentally sound as compared to anti-fouling coatings because they do not leach toxins. However, they are subject to abrasion, and therefore their use is limited to areas that are not susceptible to damage caused by ice or debris.
Biofouling is similarly a problem for surfaces used in biomedical applications. The accumulation of bacteria to form a biofilm on implanted devices such as orthopedic prostheses presents a significant risk of infection leading to complications as severe as death. In cosmetic implants, devices such as breast implants are fouled with fibroblasts and acellular extracellular matrix resulting in a hard fibrous capsule and subsequent implant rupture. Blood contacting surfaces such as artificial heart valves and artificial vascular grafts are fouled by proteins such as fibrinogen that initiate the coagulation cascade leading in part to heart attack and stroke. The accumulated affect of biofouling on chronic and acute disease states, its contribution to morbidity and its massive medical expenses places biofouling as one of the major issues facing modern medicine.